#CEJ ,,BC
,,TOPICS
0,>I/OTLE
TRANSLAT$ BY ;,W4 ,A4 ,PICK>D-
,CAMBRIDGE
,TRANSLAT$ 6GRADE ,,II ,BRL 0,MIKE
,KEI?LEY
,BOOK ,I
#A
,\R TR1TISE PROPOSES 6F9D A L9E (
9QUIRY ":BY WE % 2 A# 6R1SON F OP9IONS T
>E G5],Y A3EPT$ AB E PRO#M PROP.D$ 6U1 &
AL % \RVS1 :5 /&+ UP 6AN >GU;T1 AVOID
SAY+ ANY?+ T W OB/RUCT U4 ,F/1 !N1 WE M/
SAY :AT R1SON+ IS1 & :AT XS V>IETIES >E1
9 ORD] 6GRASP DIALECTICAL R1SON+3 = ? IS
! OBJECT ( \R SE>* 9 ! TR1TISE 2F U4
,N[ R1SON+ IS AN >GU;T 9 :1 C]TA9 ?+S
2+ LAID D[N1 "S?+ O!R ?AN ^! NECESS>ILY
-ES AB "? !M4 7A7 ,X IS A ,8DEMON/R,N0'1
:5 ! PREMISSES F : ! R1SON+ />TS >E TRUE
& PRIM>Y1 OR >E S* T \R K ( !M HAS
ORIG9,Y -E "? PREMISSES : >E PRIM>Y &
TRUE3 7B7 R1SON+1 ON ! O!R H&1 IS
,8DIALECTICAL0'1 IF X R1SONS F OP9IONS T
>E G5],Y A3EPT$4 ,?+S >E ,8TRUE0' &
,8PRIM>Y0' : >E 2LIEV$ ON ! /R5G? N (
ANY?+ ELSE B ( !MVS3 = 9 REG>D 6! F/
PR9CIPLES ( SCI;E X IS IMPROP] 6ASK ANY
FUR!R =! :Y & ":=E ( !M2 EA* (! F/
PR9CIPLES %D -M& 2LIEF 9 & 0XF4 ,ON !
O!R H&1 ^? OP9IONS >E ,8G5],Y A3EPT$0' :
>E A3EPT$ 0E "O OR 0! MAJOR;Y OR 0!
PHILOSOPH]S-I4E4 0ALL1 OR 0! MAJOR;Y1 OR
0! MO/ NOTA# & ILLU/RI\S ( !M4 ,AG 7C71
R1SON+ IS ,83T5TI\S0' IF X />TS F
OP9IONS T SEEM 6BE G5],Y A3EPT$1 B >E N
RE,Y S*1 OR AG IF X M]ELY SEEMS 6R1SON F
OP9IONS T >E OR SEEM 6BE G5],Y A3EPT$4
,= N E OP9ION T SEEMS 6BE G5],Y A3EPT$
ACTU,Y IS G5],Y A3EPT$4 ,= 9 N"O (!
OP9IONS : WE CALL G5],Y A3EPT$ IS !
ILLU.N 5TIRELY ON ! SURFACE1 Z HAPP5S 9
! CASE (! PR9CIPLES ( 3T5TI\S >GU;TS2 =!
NATURE (! FALLACY 9 ^! IS OBVI\S IMMLY1
& Z A RULE EV5 6P]SONS ) LL P[] (
-PREH5.N4 ,S !N1 (! 3T5TI\S R1SON+S
M5;N$1 ! =M] RE,Y DES]VES 6BE CALL$
,8R1SON+0' Z WELL1 B ! O!R %D 2 CALL$
,83T5TI\S R1SON+0'1 B N ,8R1SON+0'1 S9CE
X APPE>S 6R1SON1 B DOES N RE,Y D S4
,FUR!R 7D71 2SS ALL ! R1SON+S WE H M5;N$
"! >E ! MIS-R1SON+S T />T F ! PREMISSES
PECULI> 6! SPECIAL SCI;ES1 Z HAPP5S 7=
EXAMPLE7 9 ! CASE ( GEOMETRY & H] SI/]
SCI;ES4 ,= ? =M ( R1SON+ APPE>S 6DI6] F
! R1SON+S M5;N$ ABV2 ! MAN :O DRAWS A
FALSE FIGURE R1SONS F ?+S T >E NEI TRUE
& PRIM>Y1 NOR YET G5],Y A3EPT$4 ,= HE
DOES N FALL )9 ! DEF9I;N2 HE DOES N
ASSUME OP9IONS T >E RCVD EI 0E "O OR 0!
MAJOR;Y OR 0PHILOSOPH]S-T IS 6SAY1 0ALL1
OR 0MO/1 OR 0! MO/ ILLU/RI\S ( !M-B HE
3DUCTS 8 R1SON+ ^U ASSUMP;NS :1 ?\<
APPROPRIATE 6! SCI;E 9 "Q1 >E N TRUE2 =
HE E6ECTS 8 MIS-R1SON+ EI 0DESCRIB+ !
SEMICIRCLES WR;GLY OR 0DRAW+ C]TA9 L9ES
9 A WAY 9 : !Y CD N 2 DRAWN4
,! =EGO+ M/ /& = AN \TL9E SURVEY (!
SPECIES ( R1SON+4 ,9 G5]AL1 9 REG>D BO?
6ALL T WE H ALR 4CUSS$ & 6^? : WE %
4CUSS LAT]1 WE MAY REM>K T T AM.T (
4T9C;N 2T !M MAY S]VE1 2C X IS N \R
PURPOSE 6GIVE ! EXACT DEF9I;N ( ANY (
!M2 WE M]ELY WANT 6DESCRIBE !M 9 \TL9E2
WE 3SID] X Q 5 F ! PO9T ( VIEW (! L9E (
9QUIRY 2F U 6BE A# 6RECOGNIZE EA* ( !M 9
"S SORT ( WAY4
#B
,NEXT 9 ORD] AF ! =EGO+1 WE M/ SAY =
H[ _M &= :AT PURPOSES ! TR1TISE IS
USE;L4 ,!Y >E ?REE-9TELLECTUAL TRA9+1
CASUAL 5C.T]S1 &! PHILOSOPHICAL SCI;ES4
,T X IS USE;L Z A TRA9+ IS OBVI\S ON !
FACE ( X4 ,! POSSES.N (A PLAN ( 9QUIRY W
5A# U M EASILY 6>GUE AB ! SUBJECT
PROPOS$4 ,= PURPOSES ( CASUAL 5C.T]S1 X
IS USE;L 2C :5 WE H C.T$ UP ! OP9IONS
HELD 0MO/ P1 WE % MEET !M ON ! GR.D N (
O!R P'S 3VIC;NS B ( _! [N1 :ILE WE %IFT
! GR.D ( ANY >GU;T T !Y APPE> 6U 6/ATE
UNS.DLY4 ,=! /UDY (! PHILOSOPHICAL
SCI;ES X IS USE;L1 2C ! ABIL;Y 6RAISE
SE>*+ DI6ICULTIES ON BO? SIDES (A
SUBJECT W MAKE U DETECT M EASILY ! TRU?
& ]ROR AB ! S"EAL PO9TS T >ISE4 ,X HAS A
FUR!R USE 9 REL,N 6! ULTIMATE BASES (!
PR9CIPLES US$ 9 ! S"EAL SCI;ES4 ,= X IS
IMPOSSI# 64CUSS !M AT ALL F ! PR9CIPLES
PROP] 6! "PICUL> SCI;E 9 H&1 SEE+ T !
PR9CIPLES >E ! PRIUS ( "EY?+ ELSE3 X IS
"? ! OP9IONS G5],Y HELD ON ! "PICUL>
PO9TS T ^! H 6BE 4CUSS$1 & ? TASK 2L;GS
PROP]LY1 OR MO/ APPROPRIATELY1
6DIALECTIC3 = DIALECTIC IS A PROCESS (
CRITICISM ":9 LIES ! PA? 6! PR9CIPLES (
ALL 9QUIRIES4
#C
,WE % 2 9 P]FECT POSSES.N (! WAY
6PROCE$ :5 WE >E 9 A POSI;N L T : WE
O3UPY 9 REG>D 6RHETORIC & M$IC9E &
FACULTIES ( T K9D3 ? M1NS ! DO+ ( T : WE
*OOSE )! MAT]IALS T >E AVAILA#4 ,= X IS
N E ME?OD T ! RHETORICIAN W EMPLOY
6P]SUADE1 OR ! DOCTOR 6H1L2 /1 IF HE
OMITS N"O (! AVAILA# M1NS1 WE % SAY T 8
GRASP (! SCI;E IS ADEQUATE4
#D
,F/1 !N1 WE M/ SEE ( :AT "PS \R 9QUIRY
3SI/S4 ,N[ IF WE 7 6GRASP 7A7 ) REF];E
6H[ _M1 & :AT K9D (1 ?+S >GU;TS TAKE
PLACE1 &) :AT MAT]IALS !Y />T1 & 7H7 H[
WE >E 62COME WELL SUPPLI$ ) ^!1 WE %D H
SU6ICI5TLY WON \R GOAL4 ,N[ ! MAT]IALS )
: >GU;TS />T >E EQUAL 9 NUMB]1 & >E
ID5TICAL1 )! SUBJECTS ON : R1SON+S TAKE
PLACE4 ,= >GU;TS />T ) ,8PROPOSI;NS0'1
:ILE ! SUBJECTS ON : R1SON+S TAKE PLACE
>E ,8PRO#MS0'4 ,N[ E PROPOSI;N & E PRO#M
9DICATES EI A G5US OR A PECULI>;Y OR AN
A3ID5T-=! DI6]5TIA TOO1 APPLY+ Z X DOES
6A CLASS 7OR G5US71 %D 2 RANK$ TGR )!
G5US4 ,S9CE1 H["E1 ( :AT IS PECULI>
6ANY?+ "P SIGNIFIES XS ESS;E1 :ILE "P
DOES N1 LET U DIVIDE ! ,8PECULI>0' 96BO?
! A=ESD "PS1 & CALL T "P : 9DICATES !
ESS;E A ,8DEF9I;N0'1 :ILE (! REMA9D] LET
U ADOPT ! T]M9OLOGY : IS G5],Y CURR5T AB
^! ?+S1 & SP1K ( X Z A ,8PROP]TY0'4 ,:AT
WE H SD1 !N1 MAKES X CLE> T AC 6\R
PRES5T DIVI.N1 ! ELE;TS TURN \ 6BE F\R1
ALL TOLD1 "NLY EI PROP]TY OR DEF9I;N OR
G5US OR A3ID5T4 ,D N LET ANY "O SUPPOSE
U 6M1N T EA* ( ^! ENUNCIAT$ 0XF 3/ITUTES
A PROPOSI;N OR PRO#M1 B ONLY T X IS F ^!
T BO? PRO#MS & PROPOSI;NS >E =M$4 ,!
DI6];E 2T A PRO#M &A PROPOSI;N IS A
DI6];E 9 ! TURN (! PHRASE4 ,= IF X 2 PUT
9 ? WAY1 8,8,AN ANIMAL T WALKS ON TWO
FEET0 IS ! DEF9I;N ( MAN1 IS X N80' OR
,88,ANIMAL0 IS ! G5US ( MAN1 IS X N80' !
RESULT IS A PROPOSI;N3 B IF ?US1 ,8,IS
8AN ANIMAL T WALKS ON TWO FEET0 A
DEF9I;N ( MAN OR NO80' ,7OR ,8,IS
8ANIMAL0 8 G5US OR NO80'7' ! RESULT IS A
PRO#M4 ,SIMIL>LY TOO 9 O!R CASES4
,NATUR,Y1 !N1 PRO#MS & PROPOSI;NS >E
EQUAL 9 NUMB]3 = \ ( E PROPOSI;N Y W
MAKE A PRO#M IF Y *ANGE ! TURN (!
PHRASE4
#E
,WE M/ N[ SAY :AT >E ,8DEF9I;N0'1
,8PROP]TY0'1 ,8G5US0'1 & ,8A3ID5T0'4 ,A
,8DEF9I;N0' IS A PHRASE SIGNIFY+ A ?+'S
ESS;E4 ,X IS R5D]$ 9 ! =M EI (A PHRASE 9
LIEU (A T]M1 OR (A PHRASE 9 LIEU ( ANO!R
PHRASE2 = X IS "S"TS POSSI# 6DEF9E !
M1N+ (A PHRASE Z WELL4 ,P ^: R5D]+ 3SI/S
(A T]M ONLY1 TRY X Z !Y MAY1 CLE>LY D N
R5D] ! DEF9I;N (! ?+ 9 "Q1 2C A DEF9I;N
IS ALW A PHRASE (A C]TA9 K9D4 ,"O MAY1
H["E1 USE ! ^W ,8DEF9ITORY0' AL ( S* A
REM>K Z ,8,! 82COM+0 IS 8B1UTI;L00'1 &
LIKEWISE AL (! "Q1 ,8,>E S5S,N & K !
SAME OR DI6]5T80'1 = >GU;T AB DEF9I;NS
IS MO/LY 3C]N$ ) "QS ( SAME;S & DI6];E4
,9 A ^W WE MAY CALL ,8DEF9ITORY0' "EY?+
T FALLS "U ! SAME BRAN* ( 9QUIRY Z
DEF9I;NS2 & T ALL ! ABV-M5;N$ EXAMPLES
>E ( ? "* IS CLE> ON ! FACE ( !M4 ,= IF
WE >E A# 6>GUE T TWO ?+S >E ! SAME OR >E
DI6]5T1 WE % 2 WELL SUPPLI$ 0! SAME TURN
( >GU;T ) L9ES ( ATTACK ^U _! DEF9I;NS Z
WELL3 = :5 WE H %[N T !Y >E N ! SAME WE
% H DEMOLI%$ ! DEF9I;N4 ,OBS]VE1 PL1SE1
T ! 3V]SE ( ? LA/ /ATE;T DOES N HOLD3 =
6%[ T !Y >E ! SAME IS N 5 6E/ABLI% A
DEF9I;N4 ,6%[1 H["E1 T !Y >E N ! SAME IS
5 ( XF 6OV]?R[ X4
,A ,8PROP]TY0' IS A PR$ICATE : DOES N
9DICATE ! ESS;E (A ?+1 B YET 2L;GS 6T ?+
AL"O1 & IS PR$ICAT$ 3V]TIBLY ( X4 ,?US X
IS A PROP]TY ( MAN TO-BE-CAPA# ( LE>N+
GRAMM>3 = IF ,A 2 A MAN1 !N HE IS CAPA#
( LE>N+ GRAMM>1 & IF HE 2 CAPA# ( LE>N+
GRAMM>1 HE IS A MAN4 ,= NO "O CALLS
ANY?+ A ,8PROP]TY0' : MAY POSSIBLY 2L;G
6"S?+ ELSE1 E4G4 ,8SLEEP0' 9 ! CASE (
MAN1 EV5 ?\< AT A C]TA9 "T X MAY HAPP5
62L;G 6HM AL"O4 ,T IS 6SAY1 IF ANY S* ?+
7 ACTU,Y 6BE CALL$ A PROP]TY1 X W 2
CALL$ N A ,8PROP]TY0' ABSOLUTELY1 B A
,8TEMPOR>Y0' OR A ,8RELATIVE0' PROP]TY3
= ,82+ ON ! "R H& SIDE0' IS A TEMPOR>Y
PROP]TY1 :ILE ,8TWO-FOOT$0' IS 9 PO9T (
FACT ASCRIB$ Z A PROP]TY 9 C]TA9 REL,NS2
E4G4 X IS A PROP]TY ( MAN RELATIVELY 6A
HORSE &A DOG4 ,T NO?+ : MAY 2L;G 6ANY?+
ELSE ?AN ,A IS A 3V]TI# PR$ICATE ( ,A IS
CLE>3 = X DOES N NECESS>ILY FOLL[ T IF
"S?+ IS ASLEEP X IS A MAN4
,A ,8G5US0' IS :AT IS PR$ICAT$ 9 !
CATEGORY ( ESS;E (A NUMB] ( ?+S EXHIBIT+
DI6];ES 9 K9D4 ,WE %D TR1T Z PR$ICATES 9
! CATEGORY ( ESS;E ALL S* ?+S Z X WD 2
APPROPRIATE 6M5;N 9 REPLY 6! "Q1 ,8,:AT
IS ! OBJECT 2F Y80'2 Z1 = EXAMPLE1 9 !
CASE ( MAN1 IF ASK$ T "Q1 X IS
APPROPRIATE 6SAY ,8,HE IS AN ANIMAL0'4
,! "Q1 ,8,IS "O ?+ 9 ! SAME G5US Z ANO!R
OR 9 A DI6]5T "O80' IS AL A ,8G5]IC0'
"Q2 =A "Q ( T K9D Z WELL FALLS "U ! SAME
BRAN* ( 9QUIRY Z ! G5US3 = HAV+ >GU$ T
,8ANIMAL0' IS ! G5US ( MAN1 & LIKEWISE
AL ( OX1 WE % H >GU$ T !Y >E 9 ! SAME
G5US2 ":AS IF WE %[ T X IS ! G5US (! "O
B N (! O!R1 WE % H >GU$ T ^! ?+S >E N 9
! SAME G5US4
,AN ,8A3ID5T0' IS 7I7 "S?+ :1 ?\< X IS
N"O (! =EGO+-I4E4 NEI A DEF9I;N NOR A
PROP]TY NOR A G5US YET 2L;GS 6! ?+3
7"S?+ : MAY POSSIBLY EI 2L;G OR N 2L;G
6ANY "O &! SELF-SAME ?+1 Z 7E4G47 !
,8SITT+ PO/URE0' MAY 2L;G OR N 2L;G 6"S
SELF-SAME ?+4 ,LIKEWISE AL ,8:ITE;S0'1 =
"! IS NO?+ 6PREV5T ! SAME ?+ 2+ AT "O "T
:ITE1 & AT ANO!R N :ITE4 ,(! DEF9I;NS (
A3ID5T ! SECOND IS ! BETT]3 = IF HE
ADOPTS ! F/1 ANY "O IS B.D1 IF HE IS
6"U/& X1 6"K ALR :AT ,8DEF9I;N0' &
,8G5US0' & ,8PROP]TY0' >E1 ":AS ! SECOND
IS SU6ICI5T ( XF 6TELL U ! ESS5TIAL M1N+
(! T]M 9 "Q4 ,6,A3ID5T >E 6BE ATTA*$ AL
ALL -P>ISONS ( ?+S TGR1 :5 EXPRESS$ 9
LANGUAGE T IS DRAWN 9 ANY K9D ( WAY F
:AT HAPP5S 7A3IDIT7 6BE TRUE ( !M2 S* Z1
= EXAMPLE1 ! "Q1 ,8,IS ! HON\RA# OR !
EXP$I5T PREF]A#80' & ,8,IS ! LIFE (
VIRTUE OR ! LIFE ( SELF-9DULG;E !
PL1SANT]80'1 & ANY O!R PRO#M : MAY HAPP5
6BE PHRAS$ 9 T]MS L ^!4 ,= 9 ALL S*
CASES ! "Q IS ,86: (! TWO DOES !
PR$ICATE 9 "Q HAPP5 7A3IDIT7 62L;G M
CLOSELY80' ,X IS CLE> ON ! FACE ( X T "!
IS NO?+ 6PREV5T AN A3ID5T F 2COM+ A
TEMPOR>Y OR RELATIVE PROP]TY4 ,?US !
SITT+ PO/URE IS AN A3ID5T1 B W 2 A
TEMPOR>Y PROP]TY1 :5"E A MAN IS ! ONLY
P]SON SITT+1 :ILE IF HE 2 N ! ONLY "O
SITT+1 X IS / A PROP]TY RELATIVELY 6^?
:O >E N SITT+4 ,S !N1 "! IS NO?+ 6PREV5T
AN A3ID5T F 2COM+ BO? A RELATIVE &A
TEMPOR>Y PROP]TY2 B A PROP]TY ABSOLUTELY
X W N"E BE4
#F
,WE M/ N FAIL 6OBS]VE T ALL REM>KS
MADE 9 CRITICISM (A ,8PROP]TY0' &
,8G5US0' & ,8A3ID5T0' W 2 APPLICA# TO
,8DEF9I;NS' Z WELL4 ,= :5 WE H %[N T !
ATTRIBUTE 9 "Q FAILS 62L;G ONLY 6! T]M
DEF9$1 Z WE D AL 9 ! CASE (A PROP]TY1 OR
T ! G5US R5D]$ 9 ! DEF9I;N IS N ! TRUE
G5US1 OR T ANY (! ?+S M5;N$ 9 ! PHRASE
US$ DOES N 2L;G1 Z WD 2 REM>K$ AL 9 !
CASE ( AN A3ID5T1 WE % H DEMOLI%$ !
DEF9I;N2 S T1 6USE ! PHRASE PREVI\SLY
EMPLOY$10' ALL ! PO9TS WE H ENUM]AT$
MIT+ F ! RULES T >E APPROPRIATE 9 EA*
CASE1 X W PROBABLY 2 EASI] 6MAKE \R WAY
"R "? ! TASK 2F U4 ,S !N1 Z 0 SD 2F10'
WE M/ \TL9E A DIVI.N ( \R SUBJECT1 & O!R
"QS WE M/ RELEGATE EA* 6! "PICUL> BRAN*
6: X MO/ NATUR,Y 2L;GS1 SP1K+ ( !M Z
,8DEF9ITORY0' & ,8G5]IC0' "QS4 ,! "QS ,I
M1N H PRACTIC,Y BE5 ALR ASSIGN$ 6_!
S"EAL BRAN*ES4
#G
,F/ ( ALL WE M/ DEF9E ! NUMB] ( S5SES
BORNE 0! T]M ,8,SAME;S0'4 ,SAME;S WD 2
G5],Y REG>D$ Z FALL+1 R\E SD 6BE ,8SPECIFIC,Y ! SAME0'4
,SIMIL>LY1 TOO1 ^? ?+S >E CALL$ G5]IC,Y
! SAME : FALL "U ! SAME G5US1 S* Z A
HORSE &A MAN4 ,X MI T ! S5SE 9 :
WAT] F ! SAME SPR+ IS CALL$ ,8! SAME
WAT]0' IS "SH[ DI6]5T & UNLIKE ! S5SES
M5;N$ ABV3 B RE,Y S* A CASE Z ? "\ 6BE
RANK$ 9 ! SAME CLASS )! ?+S T 9 "O WAY
OR ANO!R >E CALL$ ,8! SAME0' 9 VIEW (
UN;Y ( SPECIES4 ,= ALL S* ?+S SEEM 6BE (
"O FAMILY & 6RESEM# "O ANO!R4 ,=! REAON
:Y ALL WAT] IS SD 6BE SPECIFIC,Y ! SAME
Z ALL O!R WAT] IS 2C (A C]TA9 LIKE;S X
BE>S 6X1 &! ONLY DI6];E 9 ! CASE ( WAT]
DRAWN F ! SAME SPR+ IS ?1 T ! LIKE;S IS
M EMPHATIC3 T IS :Y WE D N 4T+UI% X F !
?+S T 9 "O WAY OR ANO!R >E CALL$ ,8!
SAME0' 9 VIEW ( UN;Y ( SPECIES4 ,X IS
G5],Y SUPPOS$ T ! T]M ,8! SAME0' IS MO/
US$ 9 A S5SE AGRE$ ON 0E "O :5 APPLI$
6:AT IS NUM]IC,Y "O4 ,B EV5 S1 X IS APT
6BE R5D]$ 9 M ?AN "O S5SE2 XS MO/ LIT]AL
& PRIM>Y USE IS F.D :5"E ! SAME;S IS
R5D]$ 9 REF];E 6AN ALT]NATIVE "N OR
DEF9I;N1 Z :5 A CLOAK IS SD 6BE ! SAME Z
A D\#T1 OR AN ANIMAL T WALKS ON TWO FEET
IS SD 6BE ! SAME Z A MAN3 A SECOND S5SE
IS :5 X IS R5D]$ 9 REF];E 6A PROP]TY1 Z
:5 :AT C ACQUIRE K IS CALL$ ! SAME Z A
MAN1 & :AT NATUR,Y TRAVELS UPW>D ! SAME
Z FIRE3 :ILE A ?IRD USE IS F.D :5 X IS
R5D]$ 9 REF];E 6"S T]M DRAWN F ,A3ID5T1
Z :5 ! CR1TURE :O IS SITT+1 OR :O IS
MUSICAL1 IS CALL$ ! SAME Z ,SOCRATES4 ,=
ALL ^! USES M1N 6SIGNIFY NUM]ICAL UN;Y4
,T :AT ,I H J SD IS TRUE MAY 2 BE/ SE5
": "O =M ( APPELL,N IS SUB/ITUT$ =
ANO!R4 ,= (T5 :5 WE GIVE ! ORD] 6CALL "O
(! P :O >E SITT+ D[N1 9DICAT+ HM 0"N1 WE
*ANGE \R DESCRIP;N1 :5"E ! P]SON 6:OM WE
GIVE ! ORD] HAPP5S N 6"U/& U2 HE W1 WE
?9K1 "U/& BETT] F "S A3ID5TAL F1TURE2 S
WE BID HM CALL 6U ,8! MAN :O IS SITT+0'
OR ,8:O IS 3V]S+ OV] "!'-CLE>LY SUPPOS+
\RVS 6BE 9DICAT+ ! SAME OBJECT 0XS "N &
0XS A3ID5T4
#H
,( ,8SAME;S' !N1 Z HAS BE5 SD10' ?REE
S5SES >E 6BE 4T+UI%$4 ,N[ "O WAY 63FIRM
T ! ELE;TS M5;N$ ABV >E ^? \ ( : & "? :
& 6: >GU;TS PROCE$1 IS 09DUC;N3 = IF ANY
"O 7 6SURVEY PROPOSI;NS & PRO#MS "O 0"O1
X WD 2 SE5 T EA* 0 =M$ EI F ! DEF9I;N (
"S?+ OR F XS PROP]TY OR F XS G5US OR F
XS A3ID5T4 ,ANO!R WAY 63FIRM X IS "?
R1SON+4 ,= E PR$ICATE (A SUBJECT M/ (
NECESS;Y 2 EI 3V]TI# ) XS SUBJECT OR N3
& IF X IS 3V]TI#1 X WD 2 XS DEF9I;N OR
PROP]TY1 = IF X SIGNIFIES ! ESS;E1 X IS
! DEF9I;N2 IF N1 X IS A PROP]TY3 = ? 0
:AT A PROP]TY IS1 VIZ4 :AT IS PR$ICAT$
3V]TIBLY1 B DOES N SIGNIFY ! ESS;E4 ,IF1
ON ! O!R H&1 X IS N PR$ICAT$ 3V]TIBLY (!
?+1 X EI IS OR IS N "O (! T]MS 3TA9$ 9 !
DEF9I;N (! SUBJECT3 & IF X 2 "O ( ^?
T]MS1 !N X W 2 ! G5US OR ! DI6]5TIA1
9ASM* Z ! DEF9I;N 3SI/S ( G5US &
DI6]5TIAE2 ":AS1 IF X 2 N "O ( ^? T]MS1
CLE>LY X WD 2 AN A3ID5T1 = A3ID5T 0 SD0'
6BE :AT 2L;GS Z AN ATTRIBUTE 6A SUBJECT
)\T 2+ EI XS DEF9I;N OR XS G5US OR A
PROP]TY4
#I
,NEXT1 !N1 WE M/ 4T+UI% 2T ! CLASSES (
PR$ICATES 9 : ! F\R ORD]S 9 "Q >E F.D4
,^! >E T5 9 NUMB]3 ,ESS;E1 ,QUANT;Y1
,QUAL;Y1 ,REL,N1 ,PLACE1 ,"T1 ,POSI;N1
,/ATE1 ,ACTIV;Y1 ,PASSIV;Y4 ,=! A3ID5T &
G5US & PROP]TY & DEF9I;N ( ANY?+ W ALW 2
9 "O ( ^! CATEGORIES3 = ALL ! PROPOSI;NS
F.D "? ^! SIGNIFY EI "S?+'S ESS;E OR XS
QUAL;Y OR QUANT;Y OR "S "O (! O!R TYPES
( PR$ICATE4 ,X IS CLE>1 TOO1 ON ! FACE (
X T ! MAN :O SIGNIFIES "S?+'S ESS;E
SIGNIFIES "S"TS A SUB/.E1 "S"TS A
QUAL;Y1 "S"TS "S "O (! O!R TYPES (
PR$ICATE4 ,= :5 MAN IS SET 2F HM & HE
SAYS T :AT IS SET "! IS 'A MAN0' OR ,8AN
ANIMAL0'1 HE /ATES XS ESS;E & SIGNIFIES
A SUB/.E2 B :5 A :ITE COL\R IS SET 2F HM
& HE SAYS T :AT IS SET "! IS ,8:ITE0' OR
IS 'A COL\R0'1 HE /ATES XS ESS;E &
SIGNIFIES A QUAL;Y4 ,LIKEWISE1 AL1 IF A
MAGNITUDE (A CUBIT 2 SET 2F HM & HE SAYS
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DENOTES BO? ! ANIMAL &! 5G9E4 ,=!
DEF9I;N ( !M T CORRESPONDS 6! "N IS
DI6]5T3 =! "O W 2 DCLD 6BE AN ANIMAL (A
C]TA9 K9D1 &! O!R 6BE AN 5G9E (A C]TA9
K9D4 ,IF1 H["E1 ! G5]A 2 SUBALT]N1 "! IS
NO NECESS;Y =! DEF9I;NS 6BE DI6]5T4 ,?US
7E4G47 ,8ANIMAL0' IS ! G5US ( ,8RAV50'1
& S IS ,8BIRD0'4 ,:5"E "!=E WE SAY T !
RAV5 IS A BIRD1 WE AL SAY T X IS A C]TA9
K9D ( ANIMAL1 S T BO? ! G5]A >E PR$ICAT$
( X4 ,LIKEWISE AL :5"E WE CALL ! RAV5 A
,8FLY+ BIP$ ANIMAL0'1 WE DCL X 6BE A
BIRD3 9 ? WAY1 !N1 Z WELL1 BO? ! G5]A >E
PR$ICAT$ ( RAV51 & AL _! DEF9I;N4 ,B 9 !
CASE ( G5]A T >E N SUBALT]N ? DOES N
HAPP51 = :5"E WE CALL A ?+ AN ,85G9E0'1
WE D N CALL X AN ANIMAL1 NOR VICE V]SA4
,LOOK AL & SEE N ONLY IF ! G5]A (! T]M
2F Y >E DI6]5T )\T 2+ SUBALT]N1 B AL 9 !
CASE ( XS 3TR>Y3 = IF XS 3TR>Y BE>S
S"EAL S5SES1 CLE>LY ! T]M 2F Y DOES S Z
WELL4
,X IS USE;L AL 6LOOK AT ! DEF9I;N T
>ISES F ! USE (! T]M 9 -B9,N1 E4G4 (A
,8CLE> 7LIT4 :ITE7 BODY0' (A ,8CLE>
NOTE0'4 ,= !N IF :AT IS PECULI> 9 EA*
CASE 2 AB/RACT$1 ! SAME EXPRES.N "\
6REMA9 OV]4 ,? DOES N HAPP5 9 ! CASE (
AMBIGU\S T]MS1 E4G4 9 ! CASES J M5;N$4
,=! =M] W 2 BODY POSSESS+ S* & S* A
COL\R0'1 :ILE ! LATT] W 2 'A NOTE EASY
6HE>0'4 ,AB/RACT1 !N1 'A BODY ,8&0' A
NOTE0'1 &! REMA9D] 9 EA* CASE IS N !
SAME4 ,X %D1 H["E1 H BE5 _H ! M1N+ (
,8CLE>0' 9 EA* CASE BE5 SYNONYM\S4
,(T5 9 ! ACTUAL DEF9I;NS Z WELL
AMBIGU;Y CREEPS 9 UNAW>ES1 &= ? R1SON !
DEF9I;NS AL %D 2 EXAM9$4 ,IF 7E4G47 ANY
"O DESCRIBES :AT 2TOK5S & :AT PRODUCES
H1L? Z ,8RELAT$ -M5SURABLY 6H1L?0'1 WE
M/ N DESI/ B G ON 6EXAM9E 9 :AT S5SE HE
HAS US$ ! T]M ,8-M5SURABLY0' 9 EA* CASE1
E4G4 IF 9 ! LATT] CASE X M1NS T ,8X IS (
! "R AM.T 6PRODUCE H1L?0'1 ":AS 9 ! = X
M1NS T ,8X IS S* Z 62TOK5 :AT K9D ( /ATE
PREVAILS0'4
,MOREOV]1 SEE IF ! T]MS _C 2 -P>$ Z
,8M OR LESS0' OR Z ,8IN L MANN]0'1 Z IS
! CASE 7E4G47 )A ,8CLE>0' 7LIT4 :ITE7
S.D &A ,8CLE>0' G>;T1 &A ,8%>P0' FLAV\R
&A ,8%>P0' NOTE4 ,= NEI >E ^! ?+S SD 6BE
CLE> OR %>P ,8IN A L DEGREE0'1 NOR YET
IS ! "O SD 6BE CLE>] OR %>P] ?AN ! O!R4
,8,CLE>0'1 !N1 & ,8%>P0' >E AMBIGU\S4 ,=
SYNONYMS >E ALW -P>A#2 = !Y W ALW 2 US$
EI 9 L MANN]1 OR ELSE 9 A GRT] DEGREE 9
"O CASE4
,N[ S9CE ( G5]A T >E DI6]5T )\T 2+
SUBALT]N ! DI6]5TIAE AL >E DI6]5T 9 K9D1
E4G4 ^? ( ,8ANIMAL0' & ,8K0' 7=!
DI6]5TIAE ( ^! >E DI6]5T71 LOOK & SEE IF
! M1N+S -PRIS$ "U ! SAME T]M >E
DI6]5TIAE ( G5]A T >E DI6]5T )\T 2+
SUBALT]N1 Z E4G4 ,8%>P0' IS (A ,8NOTE0'
&A ,8SOLID0'4 ,= 2+ ,8%>P0' DI6]5TIATES
NOTE F NOTE1 & LIKEWISE AL "O SOLID F
ANO!R4 ,8,%>P0'1 !N1 IS AN AMBIGU\S T]M3
= X =MS DI6]5TIAE ( G5]A T >E DI6]5T )\T
2+ SUBALT]N4
,AG1 SEE IF ! ACTUAL M1N+S 9CLUD$ "U !
SAME T]M !MVS H DI6]5T DI6]5TIAE1 E4G4
,8COL\R0' 9 BODIES & ,8COL\R0' 9 TUNES3
=! DI6]5TIAE ( ,8COL\R0' 9 BODIES >E
,8SIE ! SAME H ! SAME
DI6]5TIAE4
,MOREOV]1 S9CE ! SPECIES IS N"E !
DI6]5TIA ( ANY?+1 LOOK & SEE IF "O (!
M1N+S 9CLUD$ "U ! SAME T]M 2 A SPECIES &
ANO!R A DI6]5TIA1 Z 7E4G47 CLE>0' 7LIT4
:ITE7 Z APPLI$ 6A BODY IS A SPECIES (
COL\R1 ":AS 9 ! CASE (A NOTE X IS A
DI6]5TIA2 = "O NOTE IS DI6]5TIAT$ F
ANO!R 02+ ,8CLE>0'4
#AF
,! PRES;E1 !N1 (A NUMB] ( M1N+S 9 A
T]M MAY 2 9VE/IGAT$ 0^! & L M1NS4 ,!
DI6];ES : ?+S PRES5T 6EA* O!R %D 2
EXAM9$ )9 ! SAME G5]A1 E4G4 ,8,":9 DOES
JU/ICE DI6] F C\RAGE1 & WISDOM F
TEMP].E8'-= ALL ^! 2L;G 6! SAME G5US2 &
AL F "O G5US 6ANO!R1 PROVID$ !Y 2 N V M*
TOO F> A"P1 E4G4 ,8,":9 DOES S5S,N DI6]
F K83 = 9 ! CASE ( G5]A T >E V F> A"P1 !
DI6];ES >E 5TIRELY OBVI\S4
#AG
,LIKE;S %D 2 /UDI$1 F/1 9 ! CASE ( ?+S
2L;G+ 6DI6]5T G5]A1 ! =MULAE 2+ ',A3,B
.K ;,C3,D0' 7E4G4 Z K /&S 6! OBJECT ( K1
S IS S5S,N RELAT$ 6! OBJECT ( S5S,N71 &
,8,Z ,A IS 9 ;,B1 S IS ;,C 9 ,D0' 7E4G4
Z SID 6T]MS T >E F> A"P2 = 9 ! CASE (!
RE/1 WE % 2 M EASILY A# 6SEE 9 "O GL.E !
PO9TS ( LIKE;S4 ,WE %D AL LOOK AT ?+S :
2L;G 6! SAME G5US1 6SEE IF ANY ID5TICAL
ATTRIBUTE 2L;GS 6!M ALL1 E4G4 6A MAN &A
HORSE &A DOG2 = 9 S F> Z !Y H ANY
ID5TICAL ATTRIBUTE1 9 S F> !Y >E ALIKE4
#AH
,X IS USE;L 6H EXAM9$ ! NUMB] ( M1N+S
(A T]M BO? = CLE>;S' SAKE 7=A MAN IS M
LIKELY 6"K :AT X IS HE ASS]TS1 IF X BAS
BE5 MADE CLE> 6HM H[ _M M1N+S X MAY H71
& AL )A VIEW 65SUR+ T \R R1SON+S % 2 9
A3ORD.E )! ACTUAL FACTS & N A4RESS$
M]ELY 6! T]M US$4 ,= Z L;G Z X IS N CLE>
9 H[ _M S5SES A T]M IS US$1 X IS POSSI#
T ! ANSW]] &! "Q] >E N DIRECT+ _! M9DS
^U ! SAME ?+3 ":AS :5 ONCE X HAS BE5
MADE CLE> H[ _M M1N+S "! >E1 & AL ^U : (
!M ! =M] DIRECTS 8 M9D :5 HE MAKES 8
ASS];N1 ! "Q] WD !N LOOK RIDICUL\S IF HE
FAIL$ 6A4RESS 8 >GU;T 6?4 ,X HELPS U AL
BO? 6AVOID 2+ MISL$ & 6MISL1D 0FALSE
R1SON+3 = IF WE "K ! NUMB] ( M1N+S (A
T]M1 WE % C]TA9LY N"E 2 MISL$ 0FALSE
R1SON+1 B % "K IF ! "Q] FAILS 6A4RESS 8
>GU;T 6! SAME PO9T2 & :5 WE \RVS PUT !
"QS WE % 2 A# 6MISL1D HM1 IF \R ANSW]]
HAPP5S N 6"K ! NUMB] ( M1N+S ( \R T]MS4
,?1 H["E1 IS N POSSI# 9 ALL CASES1 B
ONLY :5 (! _M S5SES "S >E TRUE & O!RS >E
FALSE4 ,? MANN] ( >GU;T1 H["E1 DOES N
2L;G PROP]LY 6DIALECTIC2 DIALECTICIANS
%D "!=E 0ALL M1NS 2W>E ( ? K9D ( V]BAL
4CUS.N1 UN.S ANY "O IS ABSOLUTELY UNA#
64CUSS ! SUBJECT 2F HM 9 ANY O!R WAY4
,! 4COV]Y (! DI6];ES ( ?+S HELPS U BO?
9 R1SON+S AB SAME;S & DI6];E1 & AL 9
RECOGNIZ+ :AT ANY "PICUL> ?+ IS4 ,T X
HELPS U 9 R1SON+ AB SAME;S & DI6];E IS
CLE>3 = :5 WE H 4COV]$ A DI6];E ( ANY
K9D :AT"E 2T ! OBJECTS 2F U1 WE % ALR H
%[N T !Y >E N ! SAME3 :ILE X HELPS U 9
RECOGNIZ+ :AT A ?+ IS1 2C WE USU,Y
4T+UI% ! EXPRES.N T IS PROP] 6! ESS;E (
EA* "PICUL> ?+ 0M1NS (! DI6]5TIAE T >E
PROP] 6X4
,! EXAM9,N ( LIKE;S IS USE;L )A VIEW
BO? 69DUCTIVE >GU;TS & 6HYPO!TICAL
R1SON+S1 & AL )A VIEW 6! R5D]+ (
DEF9I;NS4 ,X IS USE;L = 9DUCTIVE >GU;TS1
2C X IS 0M1NS ( AN 9DUC;N ( 9DIVIDUALS 9
CASES T >E ALIKE T WE CLAIM 6BR+ !
UNIV]SAL 9 EVID;E3 = X IS N EASY 6D ? IF
WE D N "K ! PO9TS ( LIKE;S4 ,X IS USE;L
= HYPO!TICAL R1SON+S 2C X IS A G5]AL
OP9ION T AM;G SIMIL>S :AT IS TRUE ( "O
IS TRUE AL (! RE/4 ,IF1 !N1 ) REG>D 6ANY
( !M WE >E WELL SUPPLI$ ) MATT] =A
4CUS.N1 WE % SECURE A PRELIM9>Y ADMIS.N
T H["E X IS 9 ^! CASES1 S X IS AL 9 !
CASE 2F U3 !N :5 WE H %[N ! =M] WE % H
%[N1 ON ! /R5G? (! HYPO!SIS1 ! MATT] 2F
U Z WELL3 = WE H F/ MADE ! HYPO!SIS T
H["E X IS 9 ^! CASES1 S X IS AL 9 ! CASE
2F U1 & H !N PROV$ ! PO9T Z REG>DS ^!
CASES4 ,X IS USE;L =! R5D]+ ( DEF9I;NS
2C1 IF WE >E A# 6SEE 9 "O GL.E :AT IS !
SAME 9 EA* 9DIVIDUAL CASE ( X1 WE % 2 AT
NO LOSS 96:AT G5US WE "\ 6PUT ! OBJECT
2F U :5 WE DEF9E X3 =(! -MON PR$ICATES T
: IS MO/ DEF9ITELY 9 ! CATEGORY ( ESS;E
IS LIKELY 6BE ! G5US4 ,LIKEWISE1 AL1 9 !
CASE ( OBJECTS WIDELY DIV]G5T1 ! EXAM9,N
( LIKE;S IS USE;L = PURPOSES ( DEF9I;N1
E4G4 ! SAME;S (A CALM AT SEA1 & W9D.S;S
9 ! AIR 7EA* 2+ A =M ( RE/71 &(A PO9T ON
A L9E &! UNIT 9 NUMB]-EA* 2+ A />T+
PO9T4 ,IF1 !N1 WE R5D] Z ! G5US :AT IS
-MON 6ALL ! CASES1 WE % GET ! CR$IT (
DEF9+ N 9APPROPRIATELY4 ,DEF9I;N-M;G]S
TOO NE>LY ALW R5D] !M 9 ? WAY3 !Y DCL !
UNIT 6BE ! />T+PO9T ( NUMB]1 &! PO9T !
/>T+PO9T (A L9E4 ,X IS CLE>1 !N1 T !Y
PLACE !M 9 T : IS -MON 6BO? Z _! G5US4
,! M1NS1 !N1 ":BY R1SON+S >E E6ECT$1
>E ^!3 ! -MONPLACE RULES1 =! OBS]V.E ( :
! A=ESD M1NS >E USE;L1 >E Z FOLL[S4